Abstract

Populations of wild anadromous and resident salmonids continue to decline throughout much of the Pacific Northwest and northern California. Several stocks are presently listed as threatened or endangered under the Federal Endangered Species Act. Degradation of freshwater and estuarine habitats contribute substantially to this decline. Although Federal, State, and Tribal programs have been established, no coordinated, region-wide strategy exists to develop habitat conservation plans, foster habitat protection and restoration beyond minimum requirements on nonfederal lands, or encourage education and training.

This document provides the technical basis from which government agencies and landowners can develop and implement an ecosystem approach to habitat conservation planning, protection, and restoration of aquatic habitat on nonfederal lands. The report also describes a process for developing, approving, and monitoring habitat conservation plans, pre-listing agreements, and other conservation agreements for nonfederal lands to be consistent with the mandates of applicable legal requirements.

Three parts constitute the body of the document. Chapters 1-10 supply the technical foundation for understanding salmonid conservation principles from an ecosystem perspective: over 50 years of reported scientific research has been synthesized to describe physical, chemical, and biological processes operating across the landscape, within riparian areas, and in aquatic ecosystems as well as the effects of human activities on these processes. Chapters 11-16 provide a general conceptual framework for achieving salmonid conservation on nonfederal lands in the Pacific Northwest, including specific guidelines for developing, monitoring, and implementing habitat conservation plans within the larger context of basin and regional conservation goals. An appendix lists information resources that landowners and agencies may find useful in developing and evaluating habitat conservation plans. Over 1100 sources are cited within this document.

The perspective we present in this document is anchored in the natural sciences. Although we touch on social, economic, and ethical concerns, an exhaustive discussion of these issues is beyond the report's scope. Nevertheless, our socioeconomic systems and values shape our perceptions of natural resources and drive our demands for them. The fate of salmonids in the Pacific Northwest is inextricably interwoven into this natural-cultural fabric. Just as conservation strategies that are not based on sound ecological principles will ultimately fail, ecological approaches that ignore socioeconomic values, political realities, and ethical issues are also at high risk of failure. In light of this inter-dependency between biological and social realms, we view this document as one piece of a conservation-restoration puzzle to be integrated into a more comprehensive assessment of what we as a society want and value, what legacy we wish leave to future generations, and how we can get there from here.
 

Key words

salmonids, aquatic ecosystems, aquatic habitat, land-use effects, environmental monitoring, environmental law, environmental regulations, disturbances, management systems, riparian habitat, watershed processes, habitat restoration, conservation
 

Preferred citation

Spence, B. C., G. A. Lomnicky, R. M. Hughes, and R. P. Novitzki. 1996. An ecosystem approach to salmonid conservation. TR-4501-96-6057. ManTech Environmental Research Services Corp., Corvallis, OR. (Available from the National Marine Fisheries Service, Portland, Oregon.)
 

Notice

The research to gather and compile the information in this document has been funded wholly by the Agencies (National Marine Fisheries Service, U.S. Department of Commerce; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region X; and Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior) through the Office of Personnel Management. It was performed through Contract #OPM-91-2975 to the Personnel Management Organization (PMO) Joint Venture by ManTech Environmental Research Services Corp. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

The authors copyright this document and the Agencies alone retain unrestricted use. Figures and tables have been reproduced with express permission of the copyright holders and may not be reproduced without additional permission from the cited copyright owners.
 
 

©1996 Brian C. Spence, Gregg A. Lomnicky, Robert M. Hughes, Richard P. Novitzki.

Preface

Populations of wild anadromous and resident salmonids are in decline throughout much of the Pacific Northwest and northern California. Several stocks are presently listed as threatened or endangered under the Federal Endangered Species Act (ESA), and continued losses are likely to result in additional ESA listings. A significant cause of salmonid declines is degradation of their freshwater and estuarine habitats. Although Federal, State, and Tribal conservation and restoration programs have been established, there is no coordinated, region-wide Federal strategy for developing habitat conservation plans pursuant to ESA, for fostering habitat protection and restoration beyond minimum ESA requirements on nonfederal lands, or for providing education and training in habitat protection and restoration strategies.

The National Marine Fisheries Service, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fish and Wildlife Service (the "Agencies") seek to develop 1) a training and outreach strategy to implement a coordinated ecosystem approach to ESA's habitat conservation planning as well as additional protection and restoration of aquatic habitat on nonfederal lands and 2) a process for developing, approving, and monitoring habitat conservation plans (HCPs), pre-listing agreements, and other conservation agreements for nonfederal lands that is consistent with the mandates of ESA, the Clean Water Act, and other applicable State and Federal requirements. This document provides the technical basis from which these goals can be accomplished. The primary intended audience is agency personnel who have background in the biological and physical sciences and who are responsible for overseeing land management activities. Use of technical terms that may be unfamiliar to some readers was at times unavoidable; consequently, the document may be less accessible to those without formal technical training in scientific disciplines.

The document is organized generally into three parts. Chapters 1-10 (Part I) provide the technical foundation for understanding salmonid conservation principles from an ecosystem perspective. We discuss the physical, chemical, and biological processes operating across the landscape, within riparian areas, and in aquatic ecosystems; these processes ultimately influence the ability of streams, rivers, and estuaries to support salmonids. Specific habitat requirements of salmonids during each life stage are detailed. We then review the effects of land-use practices on watershed processes and salmonid habitats, focusing on the impacts of logging, grazing, farming, mining, and urbanization on hydrology, sediment delivery, channel morphology, stream temperatures, and riparian function. An overview is presented on the importance of ocean variability in determining production of anadromous salmonids and the implications of this variability on restoration of freshwater habitats of salmonids. Next, land-use practices that minimize impacts to salmonids and their habitats are discussed, followed by a brief review of Federal laws that pertain to the conservation of salmonids on private lands. The Technical Foundation concludes with a review of strengths and weaknesses of existing programs for monitoring aquatic ecosystems; this chapter provides the basis for monitoring recommendations presented in Part II.

Chapters 11-16 (Part II) provide a general conceptual framework for achieving salmonid conservation on nonfederal lands in the Pacific Northwest, as well as specific guidelines for the development of Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs) pursuant to the Endangered Species Act. We propose a hierarchical approach to the development and evaluation of HCPs and other conservation efforts, stressing the need for site- or watershed-level conservation efforts to be developed and evaluated within the larger context of basin and regional conservation goals. We outline critical issues that should be addressed at the scales of region and basin, watersheds, and individual sites while planning HCPs. We present details of specific elements for planning effective HCPs and criteria for evaluating the potential effectiveness of HCP provisions where such criteria are supported by current scientific information. Included in this discussion is an evaluation of the effectiveness of State rules for riparian management to protect specific processes that directly affect aquatic habitats. Compliance and assessment monitoring strategies for HCPs and other conservation efforts are proposed. The document concludes with a suggested strategy for implementing salmonid conservation efforts on nonfederal lands. An appendix (the third part) lists sources of data that landowners and agencies may find useful in developing and evaluating habitat conservation plans. Over 1100 sources are cited within this document and listed in the references section.

The perspective we present in this document found its anchor in the natural sciences. Although we touch on social, economic, and ethical concerns, an exhaustive discussion of these issues is beyond the scope of the document. Nevertheless, it is our socio-economic systems and values that shape our perceptions of natural resources and drive our demands for them. The fate of salmonids in the Pacific Northwest is inextricably interwoven into this natural-cultural fabric. Just as conservation strategies that are not based on sound ecological principles will ultimately fail, ecological approaches that ignore socioeconomic values, political realities, and ethical

issues are also at high risk of failure. Scientific information influences how society both views and values natural resources such as salmon. At the same time, social values influence where we devote our research efforts (and hence the strengths and weaknesses of our knowledge base) and the feasibility of implementing what is ecologically sound. In light of this interdependency between the biological and social realms, we view this document as one piece of a conservation and restoration puzzle to be integrated into a more comprehensive assessment of what we as a society want and value, what legacy we wish leave to future generations, and how we can get there from here.

Brian C. Spence

Gregg A. Lomnicky

Robert M. Hughes

Richard P. Novitzki

Acknowledgements

Most of the guidance for this document has been provided by representatives of the three Federal agencies sponsoring the project: Elizabeth Holmes Gaar and Steven Landino (National Marine Fisheries Service); Stephen Ralph, Anita Frankel, John Armstrong, and Cara Berman (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region X); and Sharon Kramer and Eric Knudsen (Fish and Wildlife Service). These representatives participated in and coordinated the project design as well as the review of information. The Agencies through these representatives suggested contributions by local and regional experts and reviewed early drafts of the document.

Robert Beschta and Stanley Gregory (Oregon State University, Corvallis) and Patricia McDowell (University of Oregon, Eugene) served on our expert panel.

Besides the authors, other writers contributed certain sections: Stanley Gregory (3.8), Patricia McDowell (3.1, 3.2, and 3.5), and Greg Linder (5.1.2); the National Marine Fisheries Service also contributed to sections on irrigation (6.8) and fish harvest management (8.1).

We also appreciate critical reviews of earlier drafts of the manuscript by James Karr; Pete Bisson; Gordon Reeves; Dean Rae Berg; staff from the State of California, the Washington Department of Ecology, and the Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission; and an anonymous reviewer.

Managerial and professional staff of ManTech Environmental supported assembly of the draft, review, and final copies of the report. The authors express sincere thanks to Daniel Thompson, Mary Routson, and James Stikeleather for supporting this project through its completion. Mike Bollman researched unconventional resources on the World Wide Web and assembled the first draft of the Appendix. Cynthia Chapman edited, designed, and managed production of the manuscript; she also performed the background legal research, wrote summaries of Federal and State laws, implemented the standards and wrote the code for the PAPYRUS bibliographic database, and maintained the list of references. Sue Brenard and Frances Beck input bibliographic information into the database and word processed initial draft tables and manuscripts used in reviews. Jacqualyn Pendleton expertly formatted and copy edited the final report.

Finally, numerous others--too many to mention individually--have met with us to discus specific issues, have suggested documents to review or other experts to contact, have provided us materials to review, or have offered access to libraries and document collections.
 

Acronyms
 

Parentheses () indicate the department to which an agency belongs.
Brackets [ ] indicate member agencies.
Squiggly brackets { } indicate additional information.

Contents

Abstract
Key words
Preferred citation
Notice
Preface
Acknowledgements
Acronyms
Contents

Part I: Technical Foundation
Part II: Planning Elements and Monitoring Strategies
References
Figures
Tables

Part I: Technical Foundation
1 Executive Summary: Part I

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Physical and Chemical Processes
1.3 Biological Processes
1.4 Salmonid Habitat Requirements
1.5 Effects of Human Activities on Watershed Processes, Salmonids, and Their Habitats

1.5.1 Forestry
1.5.2 Grazing
1.5.3 Agriculture
1.5.4 Urbanization
1.5.5 Mining
1.5.6 Dams and Irrigation
1.5.7 Salmonid Harvest
1.5.8 Introduced Fish and Hatcheries

1.6 Effects of Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation
1.7 Practices For Restoring and Protecting Salmonids and Their Habitats
1.8 Relevant Federal Laws for Protecting and Restoring Salmonid Ecosystems
1.9 Monitoring Conservation Efforts

2 Introduction

2.1 Scope
2.2 Historical Background and Evidence of Habitat Degradation
2.3 Cumulative Effects
2.4 Strategies for Salmonid Conservation
2.5 What is Ecosystem Management?

3 Physical and Chemical Processes

3.1 Tectonism and Volcanism
3.2 Glaciation
3.3 Wildfires
3.4 Sediment Transport

3.4.1 Surface Erosion
3.4.2 Mass Wasting
3.4.3 Factors Affecting Erosion and Sedimentation Rates
3.4.4 Regional Differences

3.5 Channel Morphological Features and Their Formation
3.6 Hydrology

3.6.1 Precipitation
3.6.2 Evapotranspiration

Interception Losses
Evaporation Losses
Transpiration Losses
Total Evapotranspiration

3.6.3 Infiltration, Subsurface Flow, and Overland Flow
3.6.4 Stream Hydrology

Regional Patterns
Floods
Droughts

3.7 Thermal Energy Transfer

3.7.1 Heat Exchange in Streams
3.7.2 Stream Temperature Regulation
3.7.3 Lakes and Reservoirs

3.8 Nutrient Cycling/Solute Transport

3.8.1 Major Chemical Species and Dissolved Nutrients

Nitrogen
Phosphorus

3.8.2 Nutrient Spiraling and Retention

3.9 Roles of Riparian Vegetation

3.9.2 Bank Stabilization
3.9.3 Sediment Control
3.9.4 Organic Litter
3.9.5 Large Woody Debris
3.9.6 Nutrients
3.9.7 Microclimate
3.9.8 Wildlife Habitat

3.10 Implications for Salmonids

4 Biological Processes and Concepts

4.1 Organism Level

4.1.1 Feeding and Growth
4.1.2 Reproduction and Embryological Development
4.1.3 Respiration
4.1.4 Smoltification
4.1.5 Summary

4.2 Population Level

4.2.1 Generalized Life Cycle
4.2.2 Life History

Life-History Patterns
Implications of Life-History Diversity for Salmonid Conservation

4.2.3 Stock Concept and Local Adaptation
4.2.4 Metapopulation Dynamics
4.2.5 Evolutionarily Significant Units

4.3 Community Level

4.3.1 Food Webs
4.3.2 Competition
4.3.3 Predation
4.3.4 Disease and Parasitism

4.4 Connectivity Among Processes

4.4.1 River Continuum Concept
4.4.2 Ecoregions

4.5 Summary

5 Habitat Requirements of Salmonids

5.1 General Habitat Requirements

5.1.1 Food (Energy) Source
5.1.2 Water Quality

Temperature
Turbidity and Suspended Solids
Dissolved Oxygen and Nitrogen Gases
Nutrients
Biocides
Heavy Metals
pH

5.1.3 Habitat Structure
5.1.4 Flow Regime
5.1.5 Biotic Interactions

5.2 Habitat Requirements by Life Stage

5.2.1 Adult Migrations

Physical Structure
Flows and Depth
Water Quality

Temperature
Dissolved Oxygen
Turbidity

5.2.2 Spawning and Incubation

Physical Structure
Flow and Depth
Water Quality

Temperature
Dissolved Oxygen
Turbidity and Sedimentation

5.2.3 Rearing Habitat: Juveniles and Adult Residents

Physical Structure
Flow and Depth
Water Quality

Temperature
Dissolved Oxygen
Turbidity

5.2.4 Juvenile Migration

Physical Structure
Flow and Depth
Water Quality

Temperature
Dissolved Gasses
Turbidity

6 Effects of Human Activities

6.1 Forestry

6.1.1 Effects on Vegetation
6.1.2 Effects on Soils
6.1.3 Effects on Hydrology

Water Yield
Timing of Runoff
Peak Flows
Low Flows

6.1.4 Effects on Sediment Transport
6.1.5 Effects on Thermal Energy Transfer and Stream Temperature
6.1.6 Effects on Nutrients
6.1.7 Effects of Forest Chemicals

Fertilizers
Herbicides
Insecticides
Fire Retardants

6.1.8 Effects on Physical Habitat Structure
6.1.9 Effects on Stream Biota

6.2 Grazing

6.2.1 Effects on Vegetation
6.2.2 Effects on Soils
6.2.3 Effects on Hydrology
6.2.4 Effects on Sediment Transport
6.2.5 Effects on Thermal Energy Transfer and Stream Temperature
6.2.6 Effects on Nutrients and Other Solutes
6.2.7 Effects of Vegetation Management
6.2.8 Effects on Physical Habitat Structure
6.2.9 Effects on Stream Biota

6.3 Agriculture

6.3.1 Effects on Vegetation
6.3.2 Effects on Soils
6.3.3 Effects on Hydrology
6.3.4 Effects on Sediment Transport
6.3.5 Effects on Thermal Energy Transfer and Stream Temperature
6.3.6 Effects on Nutrient and Solute Transport
6.3.7 Effects of Fertilizer and Pesticide Use
6.3.8 Effects on Physical Habitat Structure
6.3.9 Effects on Stream Biota

6.4 Urbanization

6.4.1 Effects on Vegetation
6.4.2 Effects on Soils
6.4.3 Effects on Hydrology
6.4.4 Effects on Sediment Transport
6.4.5 Effects on Thermal Energy Transfer and Stream Temperatures
6.4.6 Effects on Nutrients and Other Solutes
6.4.7 Effects of Chemical Use
6.4.8 Effects on Physical Habitat Structure
6.4.9 Effects on Stream Biota

6.5 Sand and Gravel Mining

6.5.1 Effects on Geomorphology and Sediment Transport
6.5.2 Effects on Hydrology
6.5.3 Effects on Thermal Energy Transfer and Stream Temperature
6.5.4 Effects on Nutrients and Other Solutes
6.5.5 Effects on Physical Habitat Structure
6.5.6 Effects on Stream Biota

6.6 Mineral Mining

6.6.1 Effects on Geomorphology and Sediment Transport
6.6.2 Effects on Hydrology
6.6.3 Effects on Thermal Energy Transfer and Stream Temperature
6.6.4 Effects on Nutrients and Pollutants
6.6.5 Effects on Physical Habitat Structure
6.6.6 Effects on Stream Biota

6.7 Effects of Hydroelectric Dams
6.8 Effects of Irrigation Impoundments and Withdrawals

6.8.1 Fish Passage
6.8.2 Flow Modifications and Water-Level Fluctuations
6.8.3 Changes in Sediment Transport
6.8.4 Changes in Stream Temperature
6.8.5 Changes in Dissolved Oxygen
6.8.6 Influence of Impoundment and Water Withdrawal on Fish Diseases

6.9 River, Estuary, and Ocean Traffic (Commercial and Recreational)
6.10 Wetland Loss/Removal

6.10.1 Wetlands and Hydrology
6.10.2 Wetlands and Water Quality
6.10.3 Wetlands and Salmonid Habitat

6.11 Salmonid Harvest
6.12 Fish Introductions and Hatchery Management

6.12.1 Introductions of Non-native Species
6.12.2 Artificial Propagation of Native Salmonids

6.13 Recreation
6.14 Beaver Trapping

7 Oceanic and Atmospheric Circulation

7.1 General Ocean Circulation
7.2 Ocean Conditions and Salmonid Production
7.3 Implications for Restoration

8 Practices to Restore and Protect Salmonids

8.1 Harvest Management
8.2 Hatchery Practices
8.3 Waterway Modification
8.4 Forestry Practices

8.4.1 Upland Forest Management

Silvicultural Systems
Harvest (Yarding) Systems Site Preparation
Intermediate Treatments
Road Construction and Maintenance

8.4.2. Riparian Forest Management

8.5 Range Practices

8.5.1 Upland Range Management
8.5.2 Riparian Range Management

8.6 Agricultural Practices

8.6.1 Upland Cropland Management
8.6.2 Riparian Cropland Management

8.7 Mining Practices

8.7.1 Upland Mining Practices
8.7.2 Riparian and Instream Mining Practices

8.8 Urban Practices
8.9 Regional Planning and Management Efforts
8.10 Individual and Social Practices

8.10.1 Short-term Individual and Governmental Actions
8.10.2 Population Policy
8.10.3 Economic Policy
8.10.4 Ethics
8.10.5 Education

8.11 Summary and Implications for Salmonids

9 Relevant Federal Laws for Protecting and Restoring Salmonid Ecosystems

9.1 Clean Water Act (CWA)
9.2 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
9.3 Endangered Species Act (ESA)
9.4 Food Security Act (FSA)
9.5 Summary and Conclusions

10 Monitoring Aquatic Ecosystems

10.1 Examples of Existing Implementation (Compliance) Monitoring Programs
10.2 Examples of Existing Assessment (Effectiveness) Monitoring Programs
10.3 Sampling Design Considerations
10.4 Biological Indicators
10.5 Summary

11 Executive Summary: Part II

11.1 Ecological Goals of Salmonid Conservation
11.2 Planning Elements

11.2.1 Region and Basin (or Province) Levels
11.2.2 Watershed Level
11.2.3 Site Level

Land Alteration
Roads
Riparian Buffers
Channel Modifications
Water Use
Water Quality

11.3 The Role of Monitoring in Salmonid Conservation Activities

11.3.1 General Monitoring Framework
11.3.2 Monitoring Implementation and Effectiveness of Conservation Plans
11.3.3 Sampling Design for Monitoring Implementation and Assessment of Conservation Plans
11.3.4 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Indicators
11.3.5 Other Monitoring Issues

11.4 Implementation Strategy

11.4.1 Development of HCPs and a Regional Conservation Strategy
11.4.2 Monitoring Conservation Efforts Locally and Regionally
11.4.3 Additional Issues in Implementing a Salmon Conservation Strategy

12 Purpose

13 Goals of Salmonid Conservation

14 Planning Elements

14.1 Region and Basin Levels

14.1.1 Key Issues
14.1.2 Evaluations

Biodiversity
Stocks or Species At Risk
Connectivity and Metapopulations
Salmonid Production
Cumulative Effects and Fragmentation
Estuarine and Marine Environments

14.2 Watershed Level

14.2.1 Hydrology

Key Issues
Recommendations
Evaluation Criteria

14.2.2 Sediment Transport

Key Issues
Recommendations
Evaluation Criteria

Mass Wasting
Surface Erosion

14.2.3 Riparian Buffers

Riparian Functions in Relation to Buffer Width
Key Issues
Recommendations
Evaluation Criteria
Effectiveness of Federal and State Forest Practices in Maintaining Riparian Functions
Summary and Conclusions

14.2.4 Water Quality

Key Issues
Recommendations
Evaluation Criteria

Temperature
Dissolved Oxygen
Nutrients
Toxicants

14.2.5 Roads

Key Issues
Recommendations
Evaluation Criteria

14.2.6 Salmonid Distributions and Status

Key Issues
Recommendations
Evaluation Criteria

14.2.7 Channel Condition and Physical Habitat

Key Issues
Recommendations
Evaluation Criteria

Channel Type
Large Woody Debris
Pool Frequency and Quality
Bank Stability
Substrate Composition

14.2.8 Summary and Conclusions

14.3 Site Level

14.3.1 General Practices

Riparian Buffers
Road Design, Construction, and Rehabilitation
Active Restoration

14.3.2 Forest Practices

Riparian Buffer Zones
Silvicultural System
Harvest System
Site Preparation
Reforestation

14.3.3 Grazing

Riparian Buffer Zones
Watering Facilities
Upland Grazing Strategies
Sediment Control
Chemical Applications
Channel Restoration

14.3.4 Agricultural Practices

Riparian Buffer Zones
Sedimentation Control
Water Use
Chemical Applications and Pest Control

14.3.5 Mining Practices

Riparian Buffer Zones
Water Use
Sediment Control
Water Quality

14.3.6 Urban Land Use

Riparian Buffer Zones
Hydrology
Sediment Control
Water Quality

14.4 Data Needs

15 Monitoring Salmonid Conservation Activities

15.1 General Guidelines for Monitoring Ecosystems & Salmonids for Conservation Planning

15.1.1 Long-Term Monitoring
15.1.2 Multiscale Monitoring
15.1.3 Interinstitutional Monitoring
15.1.4 Cooperative Support

15.2 Recommended Strategy for Monitoring Salmonid Conservation Activities

15.2.1 Monitoring Implementation of HCPs and other Conservation Activities
15.2.2 Monitoring Effectiveness of HCPs and other Conservation Activities
15.2.3 Sampling Design for Monitoring Implementation and Assessment of HCPs
15.2.4 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Indicators

Stressors
Physical Habitat Structure
Water Quality
Microbial Respiration
Periphyton
Benthic Macroinvertebrates.
Aquatic Vertebrates
Salmon Spawning and Rearing.
Riparian Birds.

15.2.5 Other Monitoring Issues

15.3 Summary

16 Implementation Strategy

16.1 Development of HCPs and a Regional Salmon Conservation Strategy
16.2 Monitoring Conservation Efforts Locally and Regionally

16.2.1 Program Monitoring
16.2.2 HCP Implementation Monitoring
16.2.3 HCP and Regional Assessment Monitoring

16.3 Additional Issues in Implementing a Salmon Conservation Strategy

Appendix: Information Sources

A.1 Introduction
A.2 Regional Versus State-Specific Data and Sources
A.3 Laws and Regulations

A.3.1 Federal Laws
A.3.2 State Laws

California
Idaho
Oregon
Washington

A.4 Federal and State Government Offices

A.4.1 Federal Offices
A.4.2 State Offices

California
Idaho
Oregon
Washington
Internet Sources

References
 

Figures
 

Figure 2-1. Number and location of fish species considered extinct, endangered, or threatened in the Pacific Northwest and California

Figure 2-2. Trends in the abundance of wild stocks of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), coho salmon (O. kisutch), chum salmon (O. keta), and steelhead (O. mykiss) from river systems along the Pacific coast.

Figure 2-3. Status of coho in the Pacific Northwest and California.

Figure 2-4. Status of fall chinook salmon in the Pacific Northwest and California

Figure 2-5. Status of spring and summer chinook salmon in the Pacific Northwest and California.

Figure 2-6. Status of chum salmon in the Pacific Northwest and California

Figure 2-7. Status of sockeye salmon in the Pacific Northwest and California

Figure 2-8. Status of pink salmon in the Pacific Northwest and California

Figure 2-9. Status of sea-run cutthroat trout in the Pacific Northwest and California

Figure 2-10. Status of winter steelhead in the Pacific Northwest and California

Figure 2-11. Status of summer steelhead in the Pacific Northwest and California

Figure 2-12. (A) Distribution of stocks of anadromous Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus) in different extinction risk categories within various portions of the Pacific coast. (B) The percentage of stocks in which habitat damage, overfishing, and harmful biotic interactions have been implicated in declines of stock abundance
 

Figure 3-1. The influence of watershed characteristics on the character of aquatic ecosystems.

Figure 3-2. Riparian forest effect on streams as a function of buffer width.

Figure 3-3. Riparian buffer effects on microclimate.
 

Figure 4-1. Generalized salmonid life cycle, showing freshwater and ocean components

Figure 4-2. Trends in energy sources, ratios of autotrophic production to heterotrophic respiration, and functional groups along a river continuum
 

Figure 5-1. Five major classes of environmental factors that affect aquatic biota. Arrows indicate the kinds of effects that can be expected from human activities.
 

Figure 6-1. Temporal patterns of physical factors (A) and riparian vegetation (B) after timber harvest (time is expressed as years on a logarithmic scale.)

Figure 6-2. Nitrogen cycling pathways in undisturbed (left) and disturbed (right) riparian zones of northeastern Oregon, as indicated by redox potential (Eh).

Figure 6-3. General characteristics and functions of a) disturbed and b) undisturbed riparian areas on rangelands.

Figure 6-4. Diel fluctuations in temperature (top) and dissolved oxygen (bottom) in shaded and unshaded reaches of Mudstone Branch/Wharton Branch.

Figure 6-5. Hydrologic Simulation Program Fortran simulation of the Hylebos Creek basin in southwest King County, Washington, under fully forested land cover (top) and fully urbanized condition (bottom)

Figure 6-6. Sand and gravel operations of Washington, 1979.
 

Figure 7-1. Approximate areas of oceanic domains and prevailing current directions in the northeastern Pacific Ocean

Figure 7-2. Conceptual model of effects of declining habitat quality and cyclic changes in ocean productivity on the abundance of Oregon's coastal natural coho salmon
 

Figure 14-1. A spatial hierarchy for salmonid conservation planning.

Figure 14-2. Riparian buffer widths by stream class for ROD and State forest practice rules for westside forests.

Figure 14-3. Riparian buffer widths by stream class for PACFISH and State forest practice rules for eastside forest.

Figure 14-4. Spring chinook salmon temperature requirements by life stage.

Figure 14-5. Coho salmon temperature requirements by life stage

Figure 14-6. Bull trout temperature requirements by life stage.

Figure 14-7. Abundance of large woody debris in relation to channel width for streams in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska.

Figure 14-8. Relationship between fraction of the stream area comprised of pools and gradient for streams in managed and unmanaged forests in Washington.
 

Figure 15-1. Relationships between societal values, policy, and stressor, abiotic condition (habitat), and biological condition indicators
 

Tables

Table 2-1. Common and scientific names of salmonids native to the Pacific Northwest

Table 2-2. Essential components of ecosystem management.
 

Table 3-1. Past controls and effects on landscape development in the Pacific Northwest.

Table 3-2. Reach classes in small Oregon streams.

Table 3-3. Types of channel (habitat) units.

Table 3-4. Precipitation patterns for selected ecoregions in the range of anadromous Pacific salmonids.

Table 3-5. Estimated precipitation and evapotranspiration for western vegetation communities.

Table 3-6. Approximate ranges of recurrence of landscape and channel-forming processes and the effects of these events on stream habitats.
 

Table 4-1. Life histories of Pacific salmonids

Table 4-2. Variation in life histories of Pacific salmonids

Table 4-3. Seasonal occurrence of adult, embryonic, and juvenile anadromous salmonids in freshwaters of western Oregon and Washington

Table 4-4. Examples of local variation in traits of salmonids and their presumed adaptive advantages

Table 4-5. Pathogens of salmonids found in Pacific Northwest waters

Table 4-6. Predominant characteristics of ecoregions in the Pacific Northwest
 

Table 5-1. Water-quality criteria for selected herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides in freshwaters. From EPA (1986)

Table 5-2. Water-quality criteria for metals and metalloids found in surface waters

Table 5-3. Tolerable and preferred temperature ranges (C) for adult migration, spawning, and incubation of embryos for native salmonids in the Pacific Northwest

Table 5-4. Water depths and velocities used by anadromous and resident salmonids for spawning

Table 5-5. Stream depths and velocities at holding sites of salmonids by age or size

Table 5-6. Lower lethal, upper lethal, and preferred temperatures for selected salmonids

Table 5-7. Guidance for relating dissolved oxygen criteria to use protection
 

Table 6-1. Effects of timber harvesting on peakflows in coastal areas of the Pacific Northwest

Table 6-2. Effects of timber harvesting on peakflows in interior areas of the Pacific Northwest

Table 6-3. Summary of summer temperature changes associated with management activities on forested watersheds in the Pacific Northwest

Table 6-4. Influences of timber harvest on physical characteristics of stream environments, potential changes in habitat quality, and resultant consequences for salmonid growth and survival

Table 6-5. Deleterious effects of livestock grazing on plant communities in western North America

Table 6-6. Case histories relating the effects of gravel extraction on channel morphology and hydrology of streams in Washington, Oregon, and California.

Table 6-7. Reported toxicities of metals in soft water
 

Table 8-1. Recommendations for minimizing impacts of forest roads on aquatic habitats.

Table 8-2. Evaluation of the effects of various grazing strategies on riparian habitats. From Platts (1991)

Table 8-3. Development of civil and natural rights in American and Western culture.
 

Table 10-1. Monitoring parameters of Pacific Northwest States

Table 10-2. Reach-level monitoring parameters of Federal Programs in the Pacific Northwest
 

Table 14-1. Riparian management regulations for Federal, State, and private forest lands in Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and California

Table 14-2. Habitat concerns, by salmonid life stage, that should guide conservation efforts.

Table 14-3. Provisional minimum pool-frequency standards for determining properly functioning salmonid habitats

Table 14-4. Potential data needs for performing analyses of relationships between land-use practices and physical-chemical processes in watersheds, riparian zones, and streams

Table 14-5. Potential data needs for performing analyses of relationships between land-use practices and biological processes in streams, rivers, and riparian zones
 

Table 15-1. Recommended indicators for implementation monitoring.

Table 15-2. Recommended indicators for assessment monitoring